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Ch 9 But concerning the Eucharist, after this fashion give ye thanks. First, concerning the cup. We thank thee, our Father, for the holy vine, David thy Son, which thou hast made known unto us through Jesus Christ thy Son; to thee be the glory for ever. And concerning the broken bread. We thank thee, our Father, for the life and knowledge which thou hast made known unto us through Jesus thy Son; to thee be the glory for ever. As this broken bread was once scattered on the mountains, and after it had been brought together became one, so may thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth unto thy kingdom; for thine is the glory, and the power, through Jesus Christ, for ever. And let none eat or drink of your Eucharist but such as have been baptized into the name of the Lord, for of a truth the Lord hath said concerning this, Give not that which is holy unto dogs.

Ch 10 But after it has been completed, so pray ye. We thank thee, holy Father, for thy holy name, which thou hast caused to dwell in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and immortality which thou hast made known unto us through Jesus thy Son; to thee be the glory for ever. Thou, Almighty Master, didst create all things for the sake of thy name, and hast given both meat and drink, for men to enjoy, that we might give thanks unto thee, but to us thou hast given spiritual meat and drink, and life everlasting, through thy Son. Above all, we thank thee that thou art able to save; to thee be the glory for ever.

Ch 10 is the more primitive one where Jesus is called 'the Child, Servant of God'. In ch 9 the titel 'Jesus Christ' is added. Notice in neither one of the chapters is there any hint of a Passover-Meal or Last Supper, or a connection of the meal with the death of Jesus. Also in the older text (ch 10) there is absolutely no mention of bread-and-wine, or bread-and-cup. In ch 9 however 'cup and bread' are mentioned. Both prayer formulas are simple 'thanksgiving' prayers. 'Holding' eucharist meant coming together 'to give thanks'.

In the earlier text (ch 10) the prayer looks inside the community - repentance is required before participation, - in the later text (ch 9) the look is outside: baptism is needed for outsiders to participate. The later ch 9 has a ritualization of cup and bread. However, it is clear that from 'end-1^stc.-texts', Syrian (Didache) Christians could celebrate eucharist of bread and wine without any hint of Passover or Last Supper or mentioning of the passion or death of Jesus. Those elements were apparently not there, for every one, from the beginning, that is: 'from a solemn, formal and final institution by Jesus himself'.

As was noted before, all four Gospel narratives about this event, pack a remarkable - not to say improbable - amount of activity into 'one single night'. The closer we come to the Passion, the stronger becomes the theological interpretation of the gospel writers in their presentation of events. And as the activities increase, the details take different directions.

Keep in mind that the 'arrest and trial' followed Jesus' last meal with his disciples.

JPM makes the following observations JPM MJ I 386f concerning date and time of the Last Supper, details that can easily be overlooked or ignored.

It all starts with the disagreements between the Synoptics and John on the dates of the Last Supper and the crucifixion, which are caused by the difficulty of calculating the year of Jesus' crucifixion that can easily be overlooked or ignored.

All the Gospels place the Last Supper on Thursday evening, and the crucifixion, death, and burial on Friday before sunset. The day after Jesus' crucifixion was the Jewish Sabbath, i.e., Saturday.

Mt agrees with Mark that Jesus died on Friday and celebrated the Last Supper on Thursday evening.

Lk presents the same basic scenario, though perhaps more by 'hinting'; here is why. Looking backward, we see that the women came to the tomb on Sunday (specifically mentioned by Lk) (24:1), rested on Saturday, the Sabbath (23:56), and were around when Jesus executed, and buried on Friday (24:54). Accordingly, the Last Supper on the previous evening took place on Thursday.

Jn represents an independent passion tradition, which makes his vision interesting and important. The day of the crucifixion was in Jn 'the day of preparation' (19:31, cf 42). The next verse tells us how 'on the first day of the week', Mary Magdalene came to the tomb (20:1), indicating thus indirectly that Jesus died on Friday with the 'farewell meal' (not considered 'last' or Lord's supper') the night before on Thursday as the synoptic gospels also reported.

Date of death and Jewish calendar The following confusing data will be in Handout 3 Date of death and Jewish calendar

BUT ... there is the question how do these Thursday and Friday fit into the Jewish calendar?

Based on Exodus 12, Josephus’ testimony, and the Book of Jubilees, JPM feels that he can pinpoint the exact time of the Passover celebration in the Jewish calendar. And this becomes the cause of conflict between the synoptics and Jn.

The synoptics report that the arrest, trial, crucifixion, death and burial of Jesus took place on a Friday which was (until sunset) the 15^th of Nisan, called Passover Day. This Passover Day had started the evening before on Thursday after sunset, at which time the Pascal/Seder meal was observed and lasted until sunset that Friday.

Nissan 14 - Thursday: after sunset Passover Day starts with Pascal/Seder meal, arrest

Jn presents a different chronology. First of all: there is nothing in Jn that specifies 'Jesus’ Last Supper' as a 'Passover meal', even though it is taking place on the evening between Thursday and Friday , thus: Thursday evening.

These are some of the reasons why the Last Supper can not be seen as a Passover meal in Jn :

early Friday morning (18:28) Jewish authorities bring Jesus from Caiphas to Pilate’s pretorium, but they did not enter 'lest they be rendered unclean', so that they might eat the Passover. Clearly in Jn the Passover meal has not yet been celebrated.

Jn figured the Thursday as the 13^th of Nisan (until sunset), and with the Last Supper being held that evening when the 14^th of Nissan began, it was not a Passover meal, since Passover was on the 15^th, starting on Friday after sunset.

Jesus was crucified, died and was buried on Friday (14^th of Nissan until sunset). The Passover Day began (with the Passover meal) at sunset on Friday as the 15^th of Nissan began and continued on the following Saturday.

According to Jn the Passover Day fell that year on the Sabbath, reason why Jn mentions that the corpses had to be taken down 'for great was the day of the Sabbath' (19:31), a special solemn day, because it was also Passover day.

Nissan 14 - Friday, trial, crucifixion, death, burial - after sunset Passover starts

So what causes the confusion is the fact that Jn and the synoptics disagree on the dating of the Passover.

Synoptics report Passover as celebrated on Friday, the 14^th of Nissan, - Jn places it on Saturday, the 15^th of Nissan. For him Friday was that year ‘preparation day’ for both Passover and the Sabbath - the two observances coincided that year on Saturday, the 15^th of Nissan.

'At times commentators will speak of a Passover tone, mood or character visible in John's portrayal of the Last Supper. In so far as John pointedly place the meal just before Passover (13:1), the Passover 'tone', which indeed permeates the whole Gospel, is indisputable. But I deny, says JPM, that in John the meal itself has any characteristics that necessarily refer to Passover. I maintain, he says, that such an idea would not have crossed the minds of exegetes - if they did not also know the Synoptic Last Supper in its present Marcan form'.

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Reversal of Values

Cletus Wessels write about this in his Jesus in the New Universe Story 158 the following, that puts the 'reversal of values' in a new light. (emphasis mine GCS)

"The purity system and the holiness code of the Jewish society in the early years of the first century embodied some of the characteristics of the adolescence of the human race. As we discussed earlier adolescence involves a search for identity with the resulting tendency to separate the 'self' from the 'other'.

A destructive separateness has persisted throughout the adolescence of the human story. There is nothing wrong with diversity. The Earth revels in its diversity, but separateness ends up pitting one against another and putting one above the other-human over nature, Heaven over Earth, divine over human, spirit over matter, master over slave, ruler over subject, and ritual purity over the unclean. Such separateness was endemic to the society in which Jesus lived.

Adulthood, on the other hand, involves a process of re-membering and re-integrating that which was separate, and it calls for a new social and religious order based on 'wholeness' and 'inclusivity'. Jesus embodies this adulthood in his challenge to the arbitrary boundaries of Jewish society and his call for inclusiveness in all aspects of human life. The unclean, the leper, and the woman with a hemorrhage were made whole.

The spiritual and physical healing of the paralytic set him free and enabled him to rediscover his place in society.

Levi the tax collector was called to the Jesus movement, and Jesus, by eating with the tax collector and the sinners, broke down barriers and showed his respect for all people. The Syrophoenician woman, the hated pagan, led Jesus to heal her daughter and to cross even the barrier between Jews and gentiles.

The adult values of re-membering and re-integrating, of wholeness and inclusivity, form the basis of a new society and eventually bring about the hatred of the Pharisees and scribes and chief priests."

The language that Jesus spoke has been preserved for thousands of years iln the mountains of Syria. The streets and shops of a tiny village called Malula (population: 5,000) are some of the last places on earth where you can still hear Aramaic being spoken.

commercial and diplomatic language of the ancient near east. Hebrew had been the dominant language in the ancient Iron Age kingdoms of Israel and Judah, but by the time the exiles returned to Judah from the Babylonian captivity in the sixth century B.C., the Jewish people were speaking Aramaic.

As Aramaic became the popular language, few could understand Hebrew anymore. Although Hebrew was the original language of the Scriptures, it was gradually relegated primarily to religious settings. Hellenistic influence also brought Greek into use throughout the region in the fourth and third centuries B.C.

It is likely that Jesus understood both Hebrew and Greek because of his knowledge of scripture and his childhood in a heavily Hellenized area of Galilee.* *See Joseph A. Fitzmyer "Did Jesus Spea.k Greek?" BAR, Sep/Oct '92. However, he would have primarily spoken a dialect called Palestinian Aramaic in his everyday conversation and teaching.

Aramaic gradually fell out of use as Greek and ultimately Arabic spread throughout the region. Yet the remote location of Malula protected its people and its language from invasion by foreign influences over the centuries.

The people of Malula and the Syrian government are working hard to preserve their unique linguistic heritage. A special school has been set up to help students or refresh

Many of the religious people here take very seriously what they believe is their responsibility to, quite literally, keep the words of Jesus alive. D.D.R

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HANDOUTS (for Part I)
22 Books about Jesus
21 Note on Baptism Story
20 Baptism Texts
19 Terms Hebrew Bible
18 Ummary of the Quest
17 Galilean influence on Jesus
16 Jesus the Jew
15 Is 7:14
14 Apogrypha & Canon
13 Jospehus on Jesus
12 Chilton - Gospel Language
11 Remakable about Q
10 Summary Development early Tradition
9 Inventory Christian Writings
8 Different Parties
7 Formation of Hebr.Script. (EJ D P)
6 Daniel 7
5 Chilton on Da. 7
4 Chronology of Israel's History
3 Worthwhile Quotes
2 How to read the Book
1 Vocabulary

(H 22) Books about Jesus

Albert Schweitzer - The Quest of the Historical Jesus, 1906/2001

Rudolf Bultmann - Jesus and the Word, 1960

Lucas Grollenberg - Jesus, 1974/77 J

Albert Nolan - Jesus Before Christianity, 1976/1999/2001 JBC ! ! !

Funk/Hoover - The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? 1997 FG

Bart D. Ehrman - Jesus, apocalyptic prophet of the new millennium, 1999

Robert W. Funk - Honest To Jesus: Jesus for the New Millennium, 1996 HtJ ! ! !

A Credible Jesus 2002 CJ ! !

John D. Crossan - The Historical Jesus, The Life Of A Mediterranean Jewish Peasant 1992 HJ

Crossan/Reed - Excavating Jesus: Beneath the Stones, Behind the Texts, 2001

Geza Vermes - The Changing Faces Of Jesus, 2001 CFJ ! ! !

The Religion of Jesus the Jew 1993 RJJ ! ! !

Jesus in his Jewish Context 2003 JJC ! ! !

Jesus the Jew 1991

Bruce Chilton - Rabbi Jesus, An Intimate Biography The Jewish life and teaching that inspired Christianity, 2000 RJ ! ! !

Jesus' Baptism and Jesus' Healing: His personal practice of spirituality 1998 JBJH Jesus' Prayer and Jesus' Eucharist: His personal practice of spirituality 1997 JPJE

John P. Meier - A Marginal Jew. Rethinking the Historical Jesus (three volumes) 1991-1994 MJ

N. T. Wright - Jesus and The Victory Of God, 1997 JVG

E. P. Sanders - The Historical Figure Of Jesus, 1996) THFJ ! !

Jesus and Judaism 1985 JJ ! !

Marcus J. Borg - Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time, 1994 MJFT ! ! !

Bernard Brandon Scott - Re-imagine the World: An Introduction to the Parables of Jesus, 2001

Paula Frederiksen - Jesus of Nazareth: King of the Jews A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity 1991, JNKJ ! !

Edward Schillebeexck - Jesus, An experience in Christology, 1991 J ! !

Roger Haight Jesus - Symbol of God, 2002 JSG ! !

Hal Taussig - Jesus before God The Prayer Life of the Historical Jesus 1999 JbG ! !

Donald Senior - Jesus: A Gospel Portrait, 1992 JGP

Cox, Charlesworth2, Meier, Vermes, Harrington, Segal, Rivkin, Küng Jesus' Jewishness - 1991 JJ2

Jesus through Jewish Eyes: Rabbis and Scholars Engage an Ancient Brother in a new Conversation 2001 JtJE ! ! !

John J. Pilch - The Cultural World of Jesus, 1995 WJ

Diarmuid O'Murchu - Catching up with Jesus: A Gospel story for our Time, 2005 CwJ ! !

Jacob Neusner - A Rabbi talks with Jesus, 1993 RTWJ ! !

Stephen Mitchell - Jesus, What He really Said and did 2002 Jsm

Bernard J Lee - Jesus and the Metaphors of God 1993 JMG

Jesus Seminar - The Once and Future Jesus 2000 TOFJ

Carter Heyward - Saving Jesus from those who are right. Rethinking what it means to be a Christian, 1999 SJ

François Dreyfus - Did Jesus Know who he was 1984 DJ

Richard J. Cassidy - Jesus, Politics and Society 1979 JPS

Dale C. Allison - Jesus of Nazareth 1998 JN

A.N. Wilson Jesus, - A life 1992 JaL weak

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(H 21) Note on the Story of Jesus' Baptism (Lk 3:21f)

How we should look at it!

- not as a video or an instant replay.

- rather Jesus told about that experience

- and each Evangelist reported it in his own way. See Handout 28 Baptism Texts; also Jn 3:22-30

Around this time of his life Jesus became strongly aware of his calling as 'messiah', 'servant'. He might already have had experiences with "bruised reed" and a "smoldering wick" (probably in the workshop with some of his clients); he had seen people "blind", "in darkness" (Is 42). He had heard about these announcements from the Prophets but he started to realize that it was all around him, he was in the midst of it.

Lk says: "when J was at prayer" ; the sky opened and voice was heard: "You are my beloved son. On you my favor rests" (3:21)

The intimacy Jesus experienced in prayer with Yahweh, his God, gave him the clarity and conviction to live in a way that would make a difference in this situation of suffering.

Jesus accepts baptism in company with others; he does not separate himself from the sinners, but stands with them.

Jesus' Baptism was an experience that very probably had many aspects:

- He might have been touched by the proclamation of John, accepted the call for 'metanoia'= change your ways.

- Forgiveness of sins was not something personal for Jews, but was a reference to the failures of Israel as a "people of God". Jesus accepted that and wanted to be part of it. If this would not be true, Jesus' act would be kind of fake, as if he knew better/more, but he did it anyway to make a good impression, as an act of public humility (not completely authentic though).

- OR: Jesus let himself be baptized and joined John's clan, but later realized he had made a mistake (in youthful enthusiasm). Reason why he switched direction at a later date.

Looking a little deeper into the Baptism event, we might begin to realize that it was rather a "disclosure-experience" for Jesus, a first and basic realization of what was waiting for him, what God was calling him for.

Jesus reacted to the preaching of John that brought out the right relationship between human beings and the living God and the right relationship between one another, doing in this way the will of God. NTW

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(H 20) Baptism Texts In the Synoptics

MARK 1:9 In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan. 10 And just as he was coming up out of the water, he saw the heavens torn apart and the Spirit descending like a dove on him. 11 And a voice came from heaven, "You are my Son, the Beloved; with you I am well pleased." 12 And the Spirit immediately drove him out into the wilderness.

LUKE 3:19 But Herod the ruler, who had been rebuked by him because of Herodias, his brother's wife, and because of all the evil things that Herod had done, 20 added to them all by shutting up John in prison. 21 Now when all the people were baptized, and when Jesus also had been baptized and was praying, the heaven was opened, 22 and the Holy Spirit descended upon him in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven, "You are my Son, the Beloved; with you I am well pleased." 23 Jesus was about thirty years old when he began his work.

MATTHEW 3:13 Then Jesus came from Galilee to John at the Jordan, to be baptized by him. 14 John would have prevented him, saying, "I need to be baptized by you, and do you come to me?" 15 But Jesus answered him, "Let it be so now; for it is proper for us in this way to fulfill all righteousness." Then he consented. 16 And when Jesus had been baptized, just as he came up from the water, suddenly the heavens were opened to him and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and alighting on him. 17 And a voice from heaven said, "This is my Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased." 4:1 Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil.

What John says

JOHN 1:35 The next day John again was standing with two of his disciples, 36 and as he watched Jesus walk by, he exclaimed, "Look, here is the Lamb of God!" 37 The two disciples heard him say this, and they followed Jesus. 38 When Jesus turned and saw them following, he said to them, "What are you looking for?" They said to him, "Rabbi" (which translated means Teacher), "where are you staying?" 39 He said to them, "Come and see." They came and saw where he was staying, and they remained with him that day.

3:22 After this Jesus and his disciples went into the Judean countryside, and he spent some time there with them and baptized. 23 John also was baptizing at Aenon near Salim because water was abundant there; and people kept coming and were being baptized 24 --John, of course, had not yet been thrown into prison. 25 Now a discussion about purification arose between John's disciples and a Jew. 26 They came to John and said to him, "Rabbi, the one who was with you across the Jordan, to whom you testified, here he is baptizing, and all are going to him."

4:4:1 Now when Jesus learned that the Pharisees had heard, "Jesus is making and baptizing more disciples than John" 2 --although it was not Jesus himself but his disciples who baptized-- 3 he left Judea and started back to Galilee.

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(H 19) TERMS USED IN CONNECTION WITH THE HEBREW BIBLE

Tanak is the Hebrew Bible

Torah - the first 5 books of the Hebrew Bible,Tanak [the first 4 books Gn Ex Lev Num are the result of the J,E, and P sources. J source used Yahweh, E used Elohim, P is the Priestly source, deals mostly with ritual. 11. The 5^th book Deut has a complete different flavor, reason why it is called the "Book of the Law". TBU 13f; GaH 36; TGT 90f cop]

Mishnah -is a collection of rabbinic law - it is the work of the rabbis produced after the destruction of the Temple (starting in Jamnia) [cf PK 46; Clemens Thoma on ‛mishna'; RCh index ‛mishna'; ‛published at about 220' CE; cf PC xiv]

Talmud - Jewish commentary on the Mishnah. There are two: Palestinian Talmud (Jerusalem) - Babylonian Talmud (Babli) - still later the Shulhan Arukh.

In these commentaries the main body of the page, and occupying its centre and printed in formal block letters, is the Talmud, or Gemara. Both these synonymous terms derive from words meaning 'study' or 'learning'. Talmud is Hebrew, whereas Gemara (in the present sense) is found only in the Aramaic dialect of the Babylonian Talmud www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudMap/Gemara

Targums - Aramaic translations of books of Hebrew Bible [cf \rev RJ Bruce Chilton: Aramaic targums, a set of documents that have been largely overlooked by New Testament scholarship.] As renderings of the Hebrew Bible in the Aramaic tongue, the targums were transmitted orally for several centuries then set in writing beginning during the 4th century C.E. They did not replicate the Hebrew scriptures literally. They paraphrased, added paragraphs and inserted new concepts. Yet they are important to 'historical-Jesus research' because they reveal an oral form of the Hebrew scriptures that circulated among Jesus and his Aramaic-speaking contemporaries. Indeed, if Jesus was illiterate, as some scholars conjecture, the orally transmitted targums may have been the version of the scriptures that he knew best. Some scholars have argued that the targums originated after Jesus lived, but according to Chilton, close analysis demonstrates that much of their language and interpretation is contemporaneous with the Dead Sea Scrolls, which would indicate an origin as much as a century before Jesus.

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(H 18) Summary of the Quests for the Historical Jesus:Jesus the Jew - but what kind of Jew? Ehrman LC 95-6 [emphasis mine]

Stage 1: The Old Quest [was the effect of the Enlightenment-historical-critical look at Narratives]

- David Friedrich Strauss Das Leben Jesu 1835-6

- Joseph Ernest Rénan - Vie de Jésus 1860

- Albert Schweitzer The Quest of the Historical Jesus 1906

- Martin Kähler The so-called Historical Jesus and the Historical Biblical Christ 1896

- Paul Tillich

- Rudolf Bultmann (both separated Jeus of history from the Christ of faith

JVG ...The old Quest was determined that Jesus should look as little like a first-century Jew as possible (85)

Stage 2: The New Quest

- Ernst Käsemann (lecture) The Problem of the Historical Jesus

emphasized that Bultmann’s skepticism was too extreme

- Gunther Bornkamm Jesus of Nazareth 1956

- James M. Robinson A New Quest of the Historical Jesus 1959 focused on the present relevance of Jesus’ teaching.

- Schillebeeckx Jesus 1974

- Küng On Being a Christian 1976

JVG some have a certain scepticism about what can be known about Jesus and see the synoptics as little more than theological fiction; other place Jesus within Jewish apocalyptic eschatology, and place higher value on the synoptics (28)

Stage 3: The Third Quest

Allison (1997,98)

Betz (1968)

Borg (1984,87,94)

Brandon (1967)

Caird (1965)

Charlesworth (1988)

Chilton (1979,84,92,99)

Ehrman (1999)

Fredriksen (1988,99)

Freyne (1988)

Funk (1996,’02)

Goergen (1986)

Harvey (1982,90)

Hengel (1971,73,81)

Horsley (1987-‘03)

Lee (1988,93)

Lohfink (1984)

Meier (1991,94)

Meyer (1979,92)

Nolan (1976-99)

Oakman (1986)

Riches (1980)

Sanders (1985,93)

Theissen (1987)

Vermes (1973,83,93,’03)

Withergton (1990,94,95)

These can be catalogued this way:

- Jesus of the Jesus Seminar - Funk

- Jesus the Itinerant Cynic Philosopher: John Dominic Crossan, Burton Mack, F.Gerald Downing

- Jesus, Man of the Spirit: Marcus Borg, Geza Vermes, Graham H.Twelftree

- Jesus the Eschatological Prophet: E.P.Sanders, Maurice Casey

- Jesus the Prophet of Social Change: Gerd Theissen, Richard A.Horsley, R.David Kaylor

- Jesus the Sage: Elisabeth Schlüssler Fiorenza, Ben Witherington

- Jesus: Marginal Jew or Jewish Messiah: John P.Meier, Peter Stuhlmacher, James D.G.Dunn, Marinus de Jonge, Markus Bockmuehl, N.T.Wright*

*Says NTWright JVG 86 Jesus must be understood (according to the above authors) as a comprehensible and yet, so to speak, crucifiable first-century Jew, whatever the theological or hermeneutical consequences.

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(H 17) Galilee's Influence on Jesus Marianne Race c.s.j. TBT 3/03

Many years ago in an undergraduate world history class, I wondered aloud why Russians stomp when they dance and South Sea Islanders sway. Thus began my interest in how individuals are affected by geography. Culture and climate are formative elements of the soul and body. Our language, perspective, the way we express ourselves in speech, art, music, and dance are influenced by our geography. All aspects of one's life are shaped and colored by one's physical surroundings. It is not surprising, then, that the student of the Bible comes to a deeper understanding of the biblical story when familiar with the land in which the events of the Bible happened. The Gospels come alive with the ministry and humanity of Jesus when the stage is Israel/ Palestine. In particular, a familiarity with the region of Galilee helps one understand more clearly the words and images used in parables, modes of travel, Jesus' companions and their occupations, foods he ate, and where and how he prayed.

Galilee: A Mixed Culture

Though barely one-hundred-twenty-five miles from north to south and fifty miles from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River, Israel/ Palestine has been a pivotal crossroad for thousands of years between the great empires of the Fertile Crescent. Armies in time of war and caravans of goods in more peaceful times traveled between Egypt in the south and Assyria (then Babylon) in the north by means of a narrow land corridor. That corridor has been subsequently named Canaan, Palestine, or Israel.

Imagine the great caravans moving slowly on the Via Maris, the way of the sea, along the coast of the Mediterranean. With as many as three thousand camels, horses, and donkeys bearing goods and travelers, each caravan was a self-contained city moving at the speed of twenty miles per day. What might have dropped off this gigantic cultural and economic train as it moved through the countryside? Local people may have gained words in the languages of the merchants, perhaps medicines, farm implements, cooking spices, cloth for the latest fashion, and perfumes. Literature, music, magic, games-even an occasional marriage partner-may have been left behind. In addition, plenty of news and gossip would be among the treasures gleaned from the transient market. Passing near Nazareth, the caravan route followed the Jezreel Valley through the pass at Megiddo to the coast of the Mediterranean, where it continued south into Egypt.

Craftsmen such as Joseph and his young son would have experienced these caravans. They may have learned Greek, the language of trade and commerce in the first century, in order to barter for needed tools available from these itinerant merchants. The caravans provided one way that the region of Galilee was exposed to foreign influence. In addition, there were many non-Israelites in Galilee from the time of the Assyrian conquest and Phoenicians who had migrated from the coastal cities. The population was diverse in both religion and culture.

Galilee: Fertile and Beautiful

Because its climate and geographic conditions are so conducive to lush vegetation, Galilee has been described as the garden to the north of the Judean desert. The region stretches about forty miles from north to south and twenty-five miles from east to west. It includes the Sea of Galilee and the upper reaches of the Jordan River. An east-west fault line running from Acco on the coast to just north of the Sea of Galilee divides the area into Upper and Lower Galilee. Alternating hills and plains on an east-west axis marks Lower Galilee. The gentleness of the terrain is welcoming to local farmer and pilgrim alike. The hills and valleys range in height from 1200 feet above to 700 feet below sea level. Water drained from the hillsides creates a fertile alluvial soil on the floor of the basins between the hills. Towns climb up the hillsides and flocks are pastured there. The valleys between are used for agriculture. Josephus, a first-century A.D. Jewish historian, describes the plains of Galilee as a region whose natural properties and beauty are so remarkable that there is not a plant that its fertile soil refuses to produce.

Jesus in Galilee: Land and Sea

The two villages in which Jesus lived, Nazareth and Capernaum, are at opposite ends of Lower Galilee, about thirty miles apart. Nazareth is built on the sides of a hill in a valley that opens only to the south. The elevation is approximately 1,200 feet. The Sea of Galilee is fifteen miles east, the Mediterranean Sea twenty miles west. The altitude, protected position, and twenty-five inches of rainfall annually provide a moderate climate favorable to vegetation. Most of Jesus' neighbors were farmers. Capernaum nestles the coast of the Sea of Galilee boo feet below sea level. Though he traveled to Jerusalem, Upper Galilee, the region of Tyre and Sidon, and the Gentile area on the east side of the Sea of Galilee, Jesus lived all of his life in Lower Galilee.

Another aspect of the geography of Galilee significant in the life and ministry of Jesus (mentioned more than thirty times in all four Gospels) is the Sea of Galilee. Fed by the Jordan River and a variety of both hot and cold springs, its temperature is pleasant and its waters fresh. Unlike the Dead Sea, it has clear, sandy beaches and to this day supports a fishing industry. Jesus' first companions came from the fishing industry on the lake (Luke 5:110; Mark 1:16-20; Matt 4:18-22; -17:27). One of the postresurrection appearances takes place as these same companions have returned to work after the death of Jesus (John 21:1-11).

Seven hundred feet below sea level, and surrounded on three sides by mountains, the Sea of Galilee is subject to sudden and violent storms (Matt 8:23-27; Mark 4:35-41; 6:45-52: Luke 8:22-25; John 6:16-21). Strong gusts of wind can change the surface of the Sea from tranquil to tumultuous in a matter of minutes. A cold east wind, the Sharkiyeh, comes up suddenly, particularly during the winter season, and can be harsh and dangerous. Though the Sea is only seven miles wide at its broadest point, the wind raises waves large enough to engulf an open boat of the size used by fishermen in the first century. Waves arrive at one shore only to be thrown back into a fierce collision with the next wave rolling in. Those in the fishing industry, who worked at night, dreaded this wind because it is impossible to sail or row against it. These sudden storms can be life threatening even for the experienced seafarer.

Another factor affecting the conditions of maneuvering on the sea is the effect of the Jordan River. The Jordan enters the Sea at the north end and exits at the south, providing a current in this small body of water. The disciples heading northeast from Tabgha toward Bethsaida by boat would have been rowing against both the current and the wind (Matt 14:22-33).

Galilee: A Crowded Place

The area was heavily populated in the first century with both large cities and small villages (Josephus claims 204 named places). There is no mention in the Gospels that Jesus spent time in large cities such as Tiberias and Sepphoris. In the midst of a mixed population, those who wanted to preserve and protect their religious and cultural traditions tended toward the natural conservatism of the peasant way of life. They lived in small villages and avoided the cultural aspects of Hellenism prevalent in larger cities. It is to this peasant population that Jesus, itinerant preacher and healer, devout Jew, took his message of Good News.

Jesus moved about from village to village either on foot or by boat, probably sleeping outside often, aware of every source of shade and water. He spoke in parables about things that the locals could understand: wheat and weeds; mustard seed and yeast; common, everyday parts of an ordinary life. He was aware of the beauty of the "lilies of the field and birds of the air." His great abundance of food that fed multitudes began with bread and fish. He used the earth to heal. Perhaps part of the power of Jesus was his ability to use the land and its resources to reflect the image of God.

Galilee: Places of Solitude

Jesus also used the land to his advantage when looking for solitude or a place to be alone with his disciples. In the early first century, Galilee was not a quiet place. As was mentioned above, a major highway routed caravans and armies through the area. Large cities, an international fishing industry, and many small villages testify to a large population. Despite this atmosphere of busyness, the geography of Galilee provides many opportunities for seclusion and quiet. Wadis (narrow corridors where water drained from the hillsides toward the Sea of Galilee) separate the alternating hills and plains of Lower Galilee. The wadis are pockmarked with caves and, especially in the lush spring and summer seasons, cool streams and thick vegetation provide privacy in a setting of natural beauty.

Interestingly, there is no reference in the New Testament to Jesus praying in the Temple. He always prays outside. In one situation, the author of Mark's Gospel describes this scene: "People were coming and going in great numbers, and they had no opportunity even to eat. So they went off in the boat by themselves to a deserted place" (Mark 6:31-32; Matt 14:13). A possible site for this moment of retreat is a place along the shore of the Sea of Galilee called Tabgha, an Arabic word meaning seven springs. In gospel times Tabgha was a secluded, unused area, not suited for farming and not the site of a village. As such, this area corresponds well with the description of a solitary place appropriate for rest (Mark 6:31). It is close to the lakeshore (Mark 6:32), and there are hills close by. While Tabgha itself was secluded, it was close to farms and villages.

One who knew the land well could always find a quiet place in the mountains, wadis, or along the lakeshore to pray, to be alone with friends. The deserted place or lonely place would be a place away from the crowds. Even though one could withdraw from the busyness of people and industry, usually the distance was so short that activity could still be seen and perhaps heard. The hills of Galilee or the steep sides of a wadi can surround one with the peace and refreshment that is the gift of nature. Uninhabited stretches of lakeshore, untouched by the fishing industry of the day, would be devoid of human activity but teeming with the life cycle of plants and animals. To seek such a place to pray is to seek the God of all creation. Jesus left the complex social world of Galilee to meet his God in solitude and then used examples from the natural landscape consistently in his teaching.

Galilee: Discipleship

In Matthew 14:13-21 and Mark 6:30-44, though Jesus attempts to be alone after hearing of the death of John, crowds follow him. His heart goes out to them; he cures the sick and feeds the crowds until thousands have eaten their fill. Even the leftovers are abundant. In Luke 9:18-24 and 11:1-13, Jesus does not find thousands waiting for him, but he is not alone. His disciples are with him. In these two gospel passages the exchange between Jesus and his disciples in their quiet time together is quite profound. In Luke 9:18 Jesus asks them, "Who do the crowds say that I am?" In their response, it is Peter, destined for leadership among the disciples, who acknowledges, "You are the Messiah of God" (Luke 9:20). This exchange marks a deepening of the relationship between Jesus and his small band of companions.

As the disciples' understanding of Jesus and his mission grows, he begins to reveal to them the depth of commitment required for discipleship. It is in this setting of intimate conversation that he tells them, "Whoever would save his life will lose it, and whoever loses his life for my sake will save it" (9:24). It is in a similar setting that the disciples ask Jesus to teach them to pray (11:i). The words of the prayer Jesus teaches them are now the most common prayer known to all Christians: the Lord's Prayer.

In the Gospel of John (John 6:1-15), Jesus' search for a deserted place comes after an encounter with a crowd. In their exuberant gratitude for the miraculous feeding which has just taken place, the crowd wants to make Jesus king. He flees to a quiet place, not only to avoid their misguided (though understandable) intentions but also to contemplate this experience of the power of God within him. Perhaps the deserted place is meant to be a place away from the ordinary, a place where one can be nurtured by creation, by friendship, by food, by prayer, by becoming focused again.

Galilee in the Gospels

Galilee remains a significant place because of its association with Jesus of Nazareth. Each of the gospel writers focuses on a different aspect of the importance of Galilee. For Mark, Galilee is the place where Jesus has a successful ministry of healing, as opposed to Jerusalem where Jesus is not successful. Matthew portrays Jesus' Galilean ministry as messianic. The final meeting of the risen Jesus with his disciples and their commissioning to the ends of the earth takes place in Galilee. In Luke the movement of Jesus' mission begins in Galilee, moves to Jerusalem, and from there outward to the rest of the world. John does not give as much attention to Galilee as the Synoptic Gospels but mentions Galilee as a place of refuge (John 4:1-3) and the place where we come to know who Jesus is through signs (changing water into wine, healing, feeding multitudes). Though each of these perspectives is valuable, it is the memory of Jesus' historical presence along this shore and within these hills that makes Galilee the most significant place on earth. The land remembers. It is here that one is most in awe of the reality of the incarnation.

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(H 16) Jesus the Jew - but what kind of Jew? Ehrman LC 95-6 [emphasis mine]

To say that one of the ensured results of historical scholarship is that Jesus was a Jew may sound a bit trite, like saying that one of the assured results of modem science is that paper is combustible. Still, not even a century ago, the Jewishness of Jesus was a matter of real dispute among serious scholars of ancient Christianity. Moreover, throughout the history of the Christian church, even when Jesus' Jewish identity has not been denied it has been compromised, overlooked, or ignored. No one who working in the field of New Testament scholarship today, however, sees Jesus' Jewishness as contentious on the one hand or insignificant on the other. Jesus was Jewish, and any evaluation of his words, deeds, and fate needs to keep that constantly in mind.

Of course, determining what kind of Jew he was is another matter, and here the scholarly debates can be prolonged and harsh for insiders and a bit perplexing for outsiders. Is the historical Jesus best understood as a Jewish rabbi, who, like other rabbis, taught his followers the true meaning of the Law of Moses? Or as a Jewish holy man, who, like other holy men, could claim a special relationship with God that gave him extraordinary powers? Or as a Jewish revolutionary, who, like other revolutionaries, urged an armed rebellion against the Roman imperialists? Or as a Jewish social radical, who, like other social radicals, promoted a countercultural lifestyle in opposition to the norms and values of the society of his day? Or as a Jewish magician, who, like other magicians, could manipulate the forces of nature in awe-inspiring ways? Or as a Jewish feminist, who, like other feminists, undertook the cause of women and urged egalitarian structures in his world? Or as a Jewish prophet, who, like other prophets, warned of God's imminent interaction in the world to overthrow the forces of evil and bring in a new Kingdom in which there would be no more suffering, sin, and death?'

All of these options have their proponents among competent scholars who have devoted years of their lives to the matter yet cannot agree about some of the most basic facts about Jesus, except that he was Jewish. That at least is a start, however, and for our purposes here it is probably enough. Moreover, most scholars today acknowledge not only that Jesus was a Jew but that he was raised in a Jewish household in the Jewish hamlet of Nazareth in Jewish Palestine. He was brought up in a Jewish culture, accepted Jewish ways, learned the Jewish tradition, and kept the Jewish Law. He was circumcised, he kept Sabbath and the periodic feasts, and he probably ate kosher. As an adult he began an itinerant preaching ministry in rural Galilee, gathering around himself a number of disciples, all of whom were Jewish. He taught them his understanding of the Jewish Law and of the God who called the Jews to be his people. Most scholars would agree that some of these disciples, probably while Jesus was still living, considered him to be the Jewish Messiah, come to deliver God's people from the oppressive power of Rome to which they were subject. For one reason or another, the leaders of his people, the power players in Jerusalem, considered him a troublemaker, and when he appeared in the capital city for a Passover feast around 30 CE, they arranged to have him arrested and handed over to the Roman governor, who put him on trial for sedition against the state and executed him on charges of claiming to be king of the Jews.

And so Jesus was Jewish from start to last. His disciples were as well: born and bred Jews. Not long after his death, some or all of them came to understand Jesus as something more than a Jewish teacher (or holy man or revolutionary or social reformer or feminist or magician or prophet or whatever else he may have been). For them, Jesus was the one who had brought about a right standing before God for others. Some of his followers thought this salvation came through Jesus' death and resurrection; others said it came through his divine teachings [gnostic]. In any event, his followers soon came to proclaim that the salvation brought by Jesus was not for Jews alone, but was for all people, both Jew and Gentile.

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